Nonprecious metal catalyst for hydrogen production from neutral solutions

ABSTRACT

Catalysts comprising MoP and MoP2 are disclosed, wherein the catalyst is a composite. The catalyst may have a molar ratio of MoP:MoP2 within a range of 5:95 to 95:5. The catalyst may be used as a cathode active material for hydrogen generation from neutral pH solutions, such as wastewater or seawater. Methods of making the catalyst also are disclosed.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims the benefit of the earlier filing date of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/840,660, filed Apr. 30, 2019, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

This invention was made with Government support under Contract DE-AC05-76RL01830 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD

This disclosure concerns embodiments of a nonprecious metal catalyst, methods of using the catalyst for hydrogen production, and methods of making the catalyst.

SUMMARY

This disclosure concerns embodiments of a catalyst comprising MoP and MoP₂ and methods of making the catalyst. Cathodes comprising the catalyst and uses of the cathodes are also disclosed.

In some embodiments, a catalyst comprising MoP and MoP₂ has a molar ratio of MoP:MoP₂ within a range of 5:95 to 95:5. The catalyst may be a composite of MoP and MoP₂. In some embodiments, the catalyst is nanocomposite comprising nanoparticles having an average largest dimension within a range of 5-50 nm. In certain embodiments, the composite comprises regions of crystalline MoP and regions of MoP₂. In some examples, (i) the MoP regions comprise (101) planes and the MoP₂ regions comprise (020) planes, (ii) the MoP and MoP₂ regions may have Mo-terminated surfaces, or (iii) both (i) and (ii).

Embodiments of a method for making the disclosed catalysts include (i) combining (a) M⁺ _(n)[PMo₁₂O₄₀]^(n-) where 3≤n≤27 and M is a +1 cation (rPOM) and (b) MH₂PO₂ in a rPOM/MH₂PO₂ mass ratio within a range of 1:4 to 1:7 to provide a mixture; (ii) heating the mixture in an inert atmosphere at a first temperature T₁ within a range of 240° C. to 300° C. for a first period of time to form MoP where 1<x<2; and (iii) subsequently heating the MoP_(x) in the inert atmosphere at a second temperature T₂ within a range of 675° C. to 725° C. for a second period of time to form a catalyst comprising MoP and MoP₂, the catalyst having a molar ratio of MoP:MoP₂ within a range of 5:95 to 95:5. In some embodiments, the method further includes preparing the rPOM by (i) preparing an aqueous solution comprising a phosphomolybdate (POM); (ii) adding a reducing agent to the aqueous solution with stirring; (iii) continuing to stir for an effective period of time to reduce POM and form a solution comprising M⁺ _(n)[PMo₁₂O₄₀]^(n-) where 3≤n≤27 and M is a +1 cation (rPOM); and (iv) drying the solution comprising rPOM nanoclusters to obtain rPOM. The starting material, POM, may be prepared by (i) preparing an aqueous solution comprising a molybdate and H₃PO₄ in a molar ratio≤1:0.58 with stirring; (ii) adding 10-15 mol HNO₃ per mol of the molybdate dropwise to the aqueous solution with stirring; (iii) incubating the aqueous solution at a temperature within a range of from 60° C. to 100° C. for at least two hours, thereby producing a solution comprising POM; and (iv) recovering POM from the solution comprising POM.

In some embodiments, a cathode comprises (i) an active material comprising a catalyst as disclosed herein and a binder, and (ii) a support, wherein the active material is disposed on the support. The cathode may be used in an electrolytic cell, including but not limited to seawater electrolysis cells (SECs) and microbial electrolysis cells (MECs). The electrolytic cell further includes an, an aqueous medium, and a voltage source. In some embodiments, the aqueous medium is wastewater or seawater. The electrolytic cell can be used to generate hydrogen from the aqueous medium by supplying a voltage to the cell, whereby hydrogen is generated. In some embodiments, the aqueous medium has a pH of 5-9. In some embodiments, the electrolytic cell is an MEC including an anode comprising a carbon support and a biofilm.

The foregoing and other objects, features, and advantages of the invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description, which proceeds with reference to the accompanying figures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a cathode comprising a MoP/MoP₂ catalyst.

FIG. 2A is a schematic cross-sectional view of an electrolysis cell.

FIG. 2B is a schematic cross-sectional view of an anode for a microbial electrolysis cell.

FIG. 3 is a schematic representation of the neutral pH hydrogen evolution reaction on the MoP/MoP₂ catalyst.

FIGS. 4A and 4B are, respectively, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) images of rPOM.

FIG. 5 shows thermogravimetric (TGA) curves of rPOM.

FIG. 6 shows X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns for rPOM treated at different temperatures.

FIG. 7 shows XRD patterns for rPOM and NaH₂PO₂ mixtures treated at temperatures from 400 to 700° C.

FIG. 8 shows TGA curves of one embodiment of a MoP/MoP₂ catalyst (MoP700) as disclosed herein.

FIGS. 9A and 9B, respectively, are TEM and HRTEM images of MoP700.

FIGS. 10A-10D are HRTEM images of MoP700.

FIG. 11 is an HRTEM image showing lattice fringes with interplane spacings of 0.21 nm corresponding to MoP (101) planes.

FIG. 12 is an HRTEM image showing d-spacings of 0.56 nm corresponding to MoP₂ (020) planes.

FIG. 13 shows qualitative energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis of MoP700.

FIG. 14 shows XRD patterns for MoP, MoP₂, and MoP700.

FIGS. 15A-15E show further aspects of MoP₂ particles; 15A is a HRTEM image of a MoP₂ nanoparticle; 15B is an FFT image of the MoP₂ nanoparticle; 15C shows the simulated crystal structure along the [110] zone axis; 15D shows distribution of P atoms along the [110] zone axis; 15E shows distribution of Mo atoms along the [110] zone axis.

FIG. 16 is an HRTEM image of a MoP nanoparticle along the [010] zone axis.

FIGS. 17A and 17B are high-angle annular dark-field scanning TEM (HAADF-STEM) images of MoP700 showing the distribution of Mo and P in selected area of MoP (17A) and MoP₂ (17B) areas.

FIGS. 18A and 18B are high-resolution Mo 3d (18A) and P 2p (18B) XPS spectra for MoP700, MoP₂, and MoP.

FIG. 19 shows polarization curves for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) on different catalysts (iR-corrected) in H₂-purged 1.0 M phosphate-buffered saline (pH 7.4); scan rate 5 mV·s⁻¹; electrode rotation speed: 1600 rpm.

FIG. 20 shows Tafel plots derived from the polarization curves of FIG. 19 .

FIG. 21 shows Nyquist plots at the overpotential (η) of −150 mV; inset: equivalent circuit used for data analyses; R_(s) and R_(ct) represent the series and charge-transfer resistance, respectively.

FIGS. 22A-22D are Nyquist plots of MoP700 (22A), MoP (22B), MoP₂ (22C), and Mo₃P (22D) at different overpotentials (η) from 100 to 150 mV.

FIG. 23 shows the cycling stability of MoP700 over 4,000 cycles; all electrochemical data were obtained after cyclic-potential activation.

FIG. 24 shows HER on MoP700 and Pt/C catalysts in seawater (pH 7.8, salinity 33.8 psu, no iR-correction); scan rate: 5 mV·s⁻¹; electrode rotation rate: 1600 rpm.

FIG. 25 is a graph showing current generation for Pt/C and MoP700 cathodes at an electrode loading of 0.5 mg·cm² in 200 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) with 75 mM sodium acetate

FIGS. 26A-26D show cyclic voltammograms (CV) curves of MoP700 (26A), MoP₂ (26B), MoP (26C) and Mo₃P (26D) in the potential region of 0.10-0.30 V (versus RHE) at various scan rates (20-100 mV s⁻¹).

FIG. 27 shows the calibration of Ag/AgCl (3.0M KCl) reference electrode with respect to reversible hydrogen potential using reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE) in H₂-saturated 0.5 M H₂SO₄.

FIG. 28 shows the measured C_(dl) (FIGS. 26A-26D) plotted as a function of scan rate.

FIG. 29 shows calculated A_(ESCA) values.

FIG. 30 shows the measured HER polarization curves normalized to A_(ECSA) for Pt/C, MoP700, MoP, MoP₂, and Mo₃P.

FIG. 31 shows the calculated adsorption binding energy (ΔE_(b)) of H₂O and H adsorption on MoP₂, MoP and Mo₃P, Mo/P-terminated surfaces.

FIG. 32 shows the calculated kinetic reaction energy barriers (ΔE_(a)) for H₂O dissociation on Mo—MoP and Mo—MoP₂ surfaces.

FIG. 33 is a bar graph comparing HER activity in acidic, neutral and basic solutions for MoP700, MoP₂, MoP, Mo₃P and Pt/C; error bars are the standard deviation of at least five sets of experimental repeats.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of a catalyst comprising MoP and MoP₂ are disclosed. In some embodiments, a cathode comprising the catalyst is used in an electrolytic cell to generate hydrogen. The electrolytic cell may be a microbial electrolysis cell (MEC) or a seawater electrolysis cell (SEC). In certain embodiments, the MEC is used to generate hydrogen from a neutral pH (e.g., pH 5-9) solution, such as wastewater.

I. DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS

The following explanations of terms and abbreviations are provided to better describe the present disclosure and to guide those of ordinary skill in the art in the practice of the present disclosure. As used herein, “comprising” means “including” and the singular forms “a” or “an” or “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. The term “or” refers to a single element of stated alternative elements or a combination of two or more elements, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise.

Unless explained otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present disclosure, suitable methods and materials are described below. The materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. Other features of the disclosure are apparent from the following detailed description and the claims.

The disclosure of numerical ranges should be understood as referring to each discrete point within the range, inclusive of endpoints, unless otherwise noted. Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities of components, molecular weights, percentages, temperatures, times, and so forth, as used in the specification or claims are to be understood as being modified by the term “about.” Accordingly, unless otherwise implicitly or explicitly indicated, or unless the context is properly understood by a person of ordinary skill in the art to have a more definitive construction, the numerical parameters set forth are approximations that may depend on the desired properties sought and/or limits of detection under standard test conditions/methods as known to those of ordinary skill in the art. When directly and explicitly distinguishing embodiments from discussed prior art, the embodiment numbers are not approximates unless the word “about” is recited.

Biofilm: An aggregate of microorganisms in which cells adhere to each other and/or to a surface. The cells may be embedded within an extracellular matrix of polymeric substances produced by the cells.

Biomass: Organic material obtained from living organisms, e.g., plants, animals, microorganisms.

Catalyst: A substance, usually present in small amounts relative to reactants, which increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being consumed or undergoing a chemical change. A catalyst also may enable a reaction to proceed under different conditions (e.g., at a lower temperature) than otherwise possible.

Cathode: An electrode through which electric charge flows out of a polarized electrical device during operation of the device. From an electrochemical point of view, positively charged cations invariably move toward the cathode and/or negatively charged anions move away from it to balance the electrons arriving from external circuitry.

Cell: As used herein, a cell refers to an electrochemical device used for generating a voltage or current from a chemical reaction, or the reverse in which a chemical reaction is induced by a current.

Composite: A solid material composed of two or more constituent materials having different physical and/or chemical characteristics that, when combined, produce a material in which each substance retains its identity while contributing desirable properties to the whole. By “retains its identity” is meant that the individual materials remain separate and distinct within the composite structure. A composite is not a solid solution or a simple physical mixture of the constituent materials. In other words, each particle of the composite includes regions or domains of the two or more constituent materials. As used here, the term nanocomposite refers to a composite comprising particles with an average largest dimension of no more than 100 nm.

Current density: A term referring to the amount of current per unit area. Current density is typically expressed in units of mA/cm².

Electrolyte: A substance containing free ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium.

ECSA: Electrochemical active surface area.

Microbial electrolysis cell (MEC): An electrolytic cell including a cathode and an anode, wherein the anode comprises a biofilm. The electrolyte may be an aqueous solution capable of sustaining the microorganisms comprising the biofilm. An MEC for hydrogen production also may include an external power source. The applied voltage in combination with voltage produced by the microorganisms consuming an energy source in the electrolyte is sufficient to reduce protons in the electrolyte, producing hydrogen gas.

Nanocluster: A grouping or aggregate of nanoparticles.

Nanoparticle: A nanoscale particle with a size that is measured in nanometers, for example, a nanoscopic particle that has at least one dimension of ≤100 nm.

PGM: Platinum group metal—Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt.

Polyoxometalate (POM): A self-assembled molecular cluster comprising oxoanions of a transition metal, such as molybdenum (VI). POMs also may include heteroatoms, e.g., P, As, Si, Ge. One exemplary molybdenum-based POM is ammonium phosphomolybdate—(NH₄)₃PMo₁₂O₄₀. The term rPOM refers to a reduced POM. One exemplary molybdenum-based rPOM is Na⁺ _(n)[PMo₁₂O₄₀]^(n-) where the valence state on Mo is reduced from +6 to a value within a range of +4 to +6, and 3≤n≤27.

Region: As used herein, the term “region” refers to a measurable area or volume of a constituent within a composite material, such as a measurable area of the constituent on a transmission electron microscopy (TEM) or high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) image.

II. MoP/MoP₂ CATALYST

This disclosure concerns embodiments of a catalyst comprising MoP and MoP₂. The catalyst is not a physical mixture of MoP particles and MoP₂ particles. In some embodiments, the catalyst is a composite of MoP and MoP₂, such as a nanocomposite of MoP and MoP₂. In some embodiments, the composite is a nanocomposite comprising MoP/MoP₂ nanoparticles. In certain embodiments, the nanoparticles have an average largest dimension within a range of 5-50 nm, such as within a range of 5-40 nm or 5-30 nm.

The nanocomposite may include one or more regions or domains of MoP and one or more regions or domains of MoP₂. In some examples, individual domains may have an average largest dimension (e.g., when viewed with high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM)) within a range of from 1 nm to 50 nm. In some embodiments, the regions of MoP and MoP₂ are crystalline. For instance, HRTEM images show lattice fringes with interplane spacings of 0.21 nm corresponding to MoP (101) planes and MoP₂ (020) planes with d-spacings of 0.56-0.58 nm (FIGS. 11, 12 ). In certain embodiments, the MoP and MoP₂ regions have Mo-terminated surfaces, i.e., the outermost atomic layer comprises Mo.

In any of the foregoing embodiments, the catalyst may have a molar ratio of MoP:MoP₂ within a range of 5:95 to 95:5. In some embodiments, the MoP:MoP₂ molar ratio is within a range of 10:90 to 90:10, 20:80 to 80:20, 30:70 to 70:30, 40:60 to 60:40, or 45:55 to 55:45.

III. METHODS OF MAKING THE MoP/MoP₂ CATALYST

Embodiments of the disclosed MoP/MoP₂ catalysts are made by reaction of a reduced polyoxometalate (rPOM) with a hypophosphite (H₂PO₂ ⁻). In some embodiments, the rPOM is M⁺ _(n)[PMo₁₂O₄₀]^(n-) where 3≤n≤27 and M is a +1 cation, and the hypophosphite is MH₂PO₂. In some embodiments, M is Na, K, or NH₄ ⁺. In certain embodiments, M is Na. Without wishing to be bound by a particular theory of operation, rPOM is transformed into a composite of MoP and MoP₂ crystalline phases through a phase-controlled phosphidation process by PH₃/P, which is produced in situ by thermal decomposition of H₂PO₂ ⁻.

The synthesis occurs in two steps. In a first step, the rPOM and H₂PO₂ ⁻ are combined to form a mixture, and the mixture is heated in an inert atmosphere at a first temperature T₁ within a range of 240° C. to 300° C. for a first period of time to form MoP where 1<x<2. In some embodiments, rPOM and NaH₂PO₂ are combined in an rPOM/NaH₂PO₂ mass ratio within a range of 1:4 to 1:7 to provide a mixture. A mass ratio outside of these ranges may result in formation of MoP₂ (e.g., at a ratio of 1:8.7) or Mo₃P (e.g., at a ratio of 1:1.50). In certain embodiments, the rPOM/NaH₂PO₂ mass ratio is within a range of from 1:5 to 1:6 or within a range of from 1:5.5 to 1:6. The first period of time is sufficient to form MoP_(x). In some embodiments, the first period of time is at least one hour, such as from 1 to 3 hours. In one example, the first period of time was 2 hours.

In a second step, the MoP is heated in the inert atmosphere at a second temperature T₂ within a range of 675° C. to 725° C. for a second period of time to form the catalyst comprising MoP and MoP₂, wherein a molar ratio of MoP:MoP₂ is within a range of 5:95 to 95:5, such as within a range of 10:90 to 90:10. In some embodiments, the second temperature T₂ is within a range of 680° C. to 720° C., or 690° C. to 710° C. In certain examples, the temperature T₂ was 700° C. Preferably the temperature is not greater than 725° C. A temperature of 750° C., for example, results in a loss of P and produces MoP only. In some embodiments, the second period of time is at least 4 hours, such as from 4 to 6 hours. In one example, the second period of time was 5 hours.

In any of the foregoing embodiments, the inert atmosphere may comprise argon, nitrogen, or helium. In some instances, the inert atmosphere is argon.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises preparing the rPOM from POM. One suitable POM is ammonium phosphomolybdate, e.g., (NH₄)₃PMo₁₂O₄₀ or a hydrate thereof, where Mo has a valence state of 6+. An aqueous solution comprising POM is prepared. A reducing agent is added to the aqueous solution with stirring, and stirring is continued for an effective period of time to reduce POM and form M⁺ _(n)[PMo₁₂O₄₀]^(n-) where 3≤n≤27 and M is a +1 cation (rPOM). In rPOM, Mo has an average valence state of 4+≤Mo≤6+. In some embodiments, the effective period of time is at least one hour, such as from 1 to 3 hours. In one example, the effective period of time was 2 hours. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is NaBH₄. In such embodiments, M is Na. As reduction occurs, gas evolution is evident (NH₄ ⁺+H⁻→NH₃+H₂), and a color change of the solution from clear to dark blue is observed. Following the reaction, the aqueous solution is dried to obtain rPOM. In some embodiments, the aqueous solution is first centrifuged to precipitate any impurities and provide a solution comprising rPOM nanoclusters. The solution is then separated from the precipitated impurities and dried to obtain rPOM. Drying may be performed by any suitable method. In some embodiments, the solution is lyophilized to obtain rPOM.

In any of the foregoing embodiments, the method may further comprise preparing POM. An aqueous solution comprising a molybdate and H₃PO₄ is prepared with stirring. In some embodiments, the molybdate is a heptamolybdate, such as ammonium molybdate tetrahydrate—(NH₄)₆Mo₇O₂₄.4H₂O. To ensure complete conversion of the molybdate to POM, the relative amounts of the starting material and H₃PO₄ may be selected to provide a Mo:P molar ratio≤12:1, such as a Mo:P molar ratio≤10:1 or ≤7:1. In some embodiments, the Mo:P molar ratio is within a range of 7:1 to 12:1. Accordingly, the molybdate and H₃PO₄ may be present in a molar ratio of ≤1:0.58, such as a molar ratio within a range of 1:0.58 to 1:1. In certain examples, the molar ratio is 1:0.6. Next, 10-15 mol HNO₃ per mol of the molybdate is added dropwise to the aqueous solution with stirring, and the aqueous solution is incubated at an effective temperature for a sufficient period of time to produce a solution comprising colloidal POM. In some embodiments, the colloidal POM is colloidal (NH₄)₃PMo₁₂O₄₀. The effective temperature may be within a range of from 60° C. to 100° C., or from 70° C. to 90° C. The period of time is at least two hours, such as from 2 to 6 hours. In some examples, the effective temperature is 80° C. and the sufficient period of time is 2 hours. The colloidal POM is recovered from the solution by any suitable method. For instance, the colloidal POM may be separated by centrifuging the solution and decanting the supernatant from the precipitated POM. In some embodiments, the POM is washed (e.g., with 1.0% HNO₃) and dried prior to use. In certain examples, the POM was dried at 80° C. for 24 hours.

IV. CATHODES AND CELLS COMPRISING THE CATHODES

Embodiments of the disclosed MoP/MoP₂ catalyst may be used as cathode active materials. In some embodiments, a cathode 100 comprises an active material 110 including a MoP/Mo P₂ catalyst disposed on a support 120 (FIG. 1 ). The active material 110 may be coated on both sides of the support 120 as shown, or may be coated on just one side of the support.

In some embodiments, the active material 110 comprises the MoP/MoP₂ catalyst and a binder. One exemplary binder is a perfluorosulfonic acid (PFSA)/polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) copolymer. The catalyst may be mixed with a solution or suspension of the binder to form a catalyst suspension or paste, which is applied to the support 120 and dried. In some embodiments, the active material comprises at least 80 wt %, at least 90 wt %, at least 95 wt %, or at least 97 wt % catalyst. For example, the active material may comprise from 80-99.97 wt % catalyst, 90-99.97 wt % catalyst, or 95-99.97 wt % catalyst. The catalyst loading may be any desired amount that is practically feasible. In some embodiments, the catalyst loading is from 0.1-5 mg cm⁻², such as 0.2-3 mg cm⁻², 0.1-2 mg cm⁻², 0.1-1 mg cm⁻², 0.2-1 mg cm⁻², or 0.2-0.6 mg cm⁻². In certain embodiments, the active material consists essentially of, or consists of, the MoP/MoP₂ catalyst and the binder. As used herein, “consists essentially of” means that the active material does not include a measurable amount of additional components that participate in the generation of hydrogen from water; however, the active material may include trace amounts (e.g., ≤0.5 wt %) of inactive components other than the binder. Thus, in some examples, the active material includes≤0.5 wt % amorphous carbon or an amorphous carbon precursor; the amorphous carbon may be porous. In one embodiment, the active material consists essentially of, or consists of, the MoP/MoP₂ catalyst and the PFSA/PTFE copolymer binder.

The support 120 may be any suitable conductive material. In some embodiments, the support 120 comprises carbon. Suitable carbon supports include, but are not limited to, carbon cloth, carbon paper, graphite felt, and the like.

In some embodiments, the cathodes are used in electrolysis cells for hydrogen production. An exemplary electrolytic cell 200 is shown in FIG. 2 . The cell 200 comprises a cathode 210, an anode 220, an aqueous medium 230, and an external voltage source 240. The cell 200 may be a single-chamber cell as shown in FIG. 2A. Alternatively, the cell may be two-chamber cell with a separator placed between the anode and cathode (not shown).

The cathode 210 comprises an active material including a MoP/MoP₂ catalyst disposed on a support as discussed above. The anode 220 is an anode suitable for water electrolysis. Suitable anodes include, but are not limited to, anodes comprising metal oxides (e.g., oxides of Ir, Ru, Mn, Sn, Sb, Co, or combinations thereof), carbon-based anodes (e.g., graphite, carbon nanotubes, doped carbon, amorphous carbon), composite materials, or a biofilm disposed on a support.

In some embodiments, the electrolytic cell 200 is a microbial electrolysis cell (MEC), and the anode is an anode 220A comprising a biofilm 222 disposed on a support 224 (FIG. 2B). The biofilm comprises electrochemically active microorganism (e.g., bacteria) capable of oxidizing organic matter to generate CO₂, electrons, and protons. Such microorganisms may be referred to as exoelectrogens. Some non-limiting examples of exoelectrogens include Geobacter metallireducens, Geobacter sulfurreducens, Clostridium acetobutylicum, Clostridium butyricum, Shewanella putrefaciens, Desfulfuromonas acetoxidans, Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, Thermincola potens, Thermincola, ferriacetica Rhodoferax ferrireducens, Aeromonas Hydrophilia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Desfulobulbus propionicus, Geopsychrobacter electrodiphilus, Geothrix fermentans, Shewanella oneidensis, and Escherichia coli, among others. Typically the biofilm includes a plurality of bacterial species. The foregoing list is not all inclusive; nor is the order indicative of any preference or superiority of any particular species. In some embodiments, the cathode biofilm is produced using an inoculum from a suitable source, such as wastewater, seawater, a pond, a lake, or the like. In some embodiments, the support comprises carbon. Suitable carbon supports include, but are not limited to, carbon cloth, carbon paper, graphite felt, and the like.

The aqueous medium 230 may be a substantially neutral aqueous medium, such as an aqueous medium having a pH within a range of 5-9. In some embodiments, the pH is within a range of 5.5-8.5 or 6-8. In some embodiments, the aqueous medium comprises wastewater or seawater.

The electrolytic cell is maintained at a temperature and pressure suitable for water electrolysis. In some embodiments, the temperature is ambient temperature (e.g., 20-25° C.). In other embodiments, the temperature may within a range of 20-100° C. The pressure may be atmospheric pressure (e.g., ˜1.01×10⁵ Pa, 1 atm). However, in some embodiments, the pressure is from 0.9×10⁵ to 5×10⁵ Pa, such as from 0.9×10⁵ to 3×10⁵ Pa, or 1.5×10⁵ to 2.5×10⁵ Pa.

The electrolytic cell 200 includes an external voltage source 240 to supply energy for hydrogen production. In some embodiments, the external voltage source 240 supplies a voltage≥0.2 V, such as a voltage within a range of from 0.2-2 V, 0.2-1.5 V, 0.2-1 V, or 0.5-1 V.

When the electrolysis cell 200 is a MEC, the aqueous medium 230 is capable of sustaining the biofilm. The aqueous medium for the MEC includes nutrients and/or organic matter. Advantageously, the aqueous medium has a pH suitable for the biofilm such as a substantially neutral pH within a range of 5-9. In certain examples, the pH is within a range of 5.5-8.5 or 6-8. In some embodiments, the aqueous medium comprises wastewater (e.g., water comprising biomass). Alternatively, the aqueous medium may comprise seawater containing nutrients and/or organic matter capable of sustaining the biofilm. The MEC 200 may be maintained at a temperature and pressure suitable for the biofilm. In some embodiments, the temperature is ambient temperature (e.g., 20-25° C.). In other embodiments, the MEC may be heated, e.g., to a temperature within a range of 25-35° C. The pressure may be atmospheric pressure. However, in some embodiments, the pressure is from 0.9×10⁵ to 5×10⁵ Pa, such as from 0.9×10⁵ to 3×10⁵ Pa, or 1.5×10⁵ to 2.5×10⁵ Pa. In certain examples, an MEC was operated at ˜2×10⁵ Pa (2 atm).

The MEC includes an external voltage source 240. Although some voltage may be generated by electrochemical activity of the biofilm, additional energy facilitates hydrogen production. In some embodiments, the external voltage source 240 supplies a voltage≥0.2 V, such as a voltage within a range of from 0.2-2 V, 0.2-1.5 V, 0.2-1 V, or 0.5-1 V.

In some embodiments, an electrolytic cell with a MoP/MoP₂ cathode produces a current density within a range of from 1-250 A·m⁻² (0.1-25 mA·cm⁻²), such as a current density of 5-250 A·m⁻², 5-200 A·m⁻², 5-100 A·m⁻², or 5-50 A·m⁻². In one example with seawater (pH 7.8, salinity 33.8 psu), an electrolytic cell with a MoP/MoP₂ cathode (loading 0.25 mg·cm⁻²) generated a current density of ˜120 A·m⁻², which remained stable over 2 hours (FIG. 24 ).

V. HYDROGEN GENERATION

One efficient and sustainable route to generate hydrogen is catalytic hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) from water: 2H⁺+2e ⁻→H₂

Generating H₂ from mild neutral pH solutions (e.g., wastewater, seawater) has shown advantages of being environmentally friendly, sustainable, and/or cost-effective. It may also provide an efficient way for environmental cleanup. For example, H₂ production using a microbial electrolysis cell (MEC) cleans wastewater as organic materials in the wastewater are degraded by microorganisms.

Platinum-group-metals (PGM) are known to efficiently catalyze HER. However, practical application has been significantly limited by their scarcity and high cost. Some nonprecious metal HER catalysts are known, but most underperform in neutral pH solutions, making them unsuitable for use with wastewater or seawater.

Embodiments of the disclosed MoP/MoP₂ catalysts are useful HER catalysts. Advantageously, the catalysts may be used in an electrolysis cell to generate hydrogen from an aqueous medium, including neutral pH aqueous media, by HER.

In some embodiments, a method for generating hydrogen includes providing an electrolytic cell including a cathode comprising the MoP/MoP₂ catalyst and an anode suitable for water electrolysis. The aqueous medium may be a substantially neutral aqueous medium having a pH within a range of from 5 to 9. Embodiments of a method for generating hydrogen using an electrolysis cell include supplying a voltage to the electrolytic cell, whereby hydrogen is generated. In certain embodiments, the aqueous medium is seawater or wastewater. In some embodiments, the applied voltage is ≥0.2 V, such as a voltage within a range of from 0.2-5 V, 0.2-2.5 V, 0.5-2.5 V. The electrolytic cell may be operated under a temperature within a range of 20-100° C. and a pressure within a range of 0.9×10⁵ Pa to 5×10⁵ Pa.

In some embodiments, the electrolysis cell is an MEC including a cathode comprising the MoP/MoP₂ catalyst and an anode comprising a biofilm (e.g., as shown in FIG. 2 ). The aqueous medium may be a substantially neutral aqueous medium having a pH within a range of from 5 to 9. Embodiments of a method for generating hydrogen using an MEC include providing an MEC as disclosed herein, and supplying a voltage to the MEC, whereby hydrogen is generated. In one embodiment, the aqueous medium comprises wastewater. In an independent embodiment, the aqueous medium comprises seawater, wherein the seawater contains nutrients and/or organic matter capable of sustaining the biofilm. In some embodiments, the applied voltage is ≥0.2 V, such as a voltage within a range of from 0.2-1.5 V, 0.2-1 V, or 0.5-1 V. The MEC may be operated at a temperature within a range of 25-35° C. and a pressure within a range of 0.9×10⁵ Pa to 5×10⁵ Pa.

In some embodiments, a cathode comprising a MoP/MoP₂ catalyst as disclosed herein demonstrates outstanding stability with continuous hydrogen evolution for at least 4000 cycles in an accelerated stability test using a dynamic potential protocol (see Example 2, FIG. 23 ). Additionally, in some embodiments, an MEC including a cathode comprising MoP/MoP₂ exhibits an average current density≥50 A·m⁻², such as an average current density within a range of 50 A·m⁻² to 300 A·m⁻², 50 A·m⁻² to 200 A·m⁻², or 100 A·m⁻² to 200 A·m⁻². The current density is higher than that produced by a Pt/C catalyst, demonstrating that the MoP/MoP₂ catalyst is capable of generating H₂ at least 5 times faster than previously reported MECs (see Example 3, Table 2, FIG. 24 ). An MEC including a cathode comprising MoP/MoP₂ shows excellent stability with stable cycling for at least 8 hours, at least 12 hours, or at least 24 hours in 200 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) with 75 mM sodium acetate (see Example 3, FIG. 25 ).

Without wishing to be bound by a particular theory of operation, the biofilm on the MEC anode oxidizes organic matter in the aqueous medium to generate CO₂, electrons, and protons. Meanwhile, H₂O adsorbs to the MoP/MoP₂ catalyst at the cathode and is decomposed, producing OH⁻ and H⁺, as shown in FIG. 3 . H₂O decomposition preferentially occurs at the MoP₂ surface with a high contrast between the electrostatic affinity of “Mo^(δ+)” to —OH and “P^(δ−)” to —H to accelerate the H₂O dissociation. Adsorbed H⁺ migrates to nearby MoP sites having optimum exposure of Mo atoms to provide active sites for H⁺ recombination to form H₂. The remaining OH⁻ ions dissociate from the MoP₂ sites and combine with protons in the aqueous medium to form H₂O.

In some embodiments, the MoP/MoP₂ catalyst also provides superior results when producing hydrogen from seawater. Superior performance compared to a Pt/C catalyst with ˜10% greater current density and excellent stability was demonstrated in a three-electrode cell using natural seawater (see Example 3, FIG. 24 ).

The composite nature of the MoP/MoP₂ catalyst has a synergistic effect with the catalytic activity being greater than MoP or MoP₂ individually and also greater than a simple physical mixture of MoP and MoP₂. In one example, a MoP/MoP₂ catalyst exhibited a η of 201 mV at j of 0.3 mA cm⁻² _(ESCA), which outperformed MoP₂, MoP and Mo₃P by 115, 89 and 261 mV (see Example 4, FIG. 30 ). A comparison of the HER catalytic activity showed that the MoP/MoP₂ catalyst greatly outperformed MoP or MoP₂ individually, and also greatly outperformed a physical mixture of MoP and MoP₂ (see Example 2, FIG. 19 ).

VI. EXAMPLES

General Methods

Characterization. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM) and high-resolution TEM images were obtained by a FEI Titan system. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was obtained using a Kratos Axis Ultra DLD spectrometer. All peaks were adjusted based on C1s peak at 284.5 eV as a reference. X-ray diffraction patterns (XRD) were collected using a Philips Xpert X-ray diffractometer in a CuKα tube at λ=1.5418 Å.

Electrochemical Measurements. All electrochemical tests were performed in a three-electrode setup using a CHI 660D electrochemical workstation using an Ag/AgCl reference electrode (4.0 M KCl) and graphite-rod as counter electrode. The Ag/AgCl reference electrode was calibrated in H₂-saturated 0.5 M H₂SO₄ solution using Pt wire for both the working and counter electrodes to −0.255 V versus the reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE) (E_(RHE)=0.059 pH+0.255 V). To prepare the working electrode, 5 mg of catalyst was mixed with 3980 μL 70% water/isopropyl-alcohol and 20 μL of 5 wt % Nafion solution by sonication for 0.5 hour. Subsequently, 40 μL of the catalyst ink was drop-dried onto a glassy carbon (GC, Pine Instruments) to cover an area of 0.19625 cm² (˜0.25 mg cm⁻²). All the potentials reported in this work were converted to RHE. All the polarization curves were iR-corrected. AC impedance measurements were conducted in the same configuration when the working electrode was biased at overpotential of 100, 125 and 150 mV versus RHE from 10⁵ Hz to 10⁻¹ Hz with an AC voltage of 5 mV. All the electrochemical data were obtained after electrochemical cyclic potential (CV) activation for 50 cycles (0 to 0.6 V versus RHE). All HER polarization curves were collected after electrochemical polarization potential activation for 3 scans (LSV, 0.15 to −0.45 V, versus RHE). CV between −0.45 and 0.15 V (versus RHE) at scan rate of 50 mV s⁻¹ for 4,000 cycles was performed to evaluate the HER stability. All tests were conducted 5 times to avoid any incidental error.

Density Functional Theory (DFT) Calculations. DFT calculations were performed by Vienna ab-initio simulation package (VASP) with the projector augmented wave pseudo-potentials to describe the interaction between atomic cores and valence electrons with DFT. The Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof functional within the generalized gradient approximation (GGA) was used to implement DFT calculation. The MoP, MoP₂, Mo₃P (001) by the Mo-/P-terminated slab models were employed to simulate the surface properties. The reasonable vacuum layers were set to 15 Å in the z-direction for avoiding interaction between MoPx planes. A cutoff energy of 400 eV was provided and a 4×4×1 Monkhorst Pack k-point sampling was used for the well converged energy values. Geometry optimizations were pursued until the force on each atom falls below the convergence criterion of 0.02 eV Å-1 and energy was converged within 10-5 eV. The lowest two layers atoms were fixed while the other atoms were allowed to move during the geometry optimization in the Mo-/P-terminated surface. The differential adsorption energy of H atom can be estimated by using the equation: ΔE _(ad) =E _(ad/base) −E _(ad) −E _(base) where E_(ad/base), E_(ad), and E_(base) are the total energy of the adsorbed systems, the isolated H/H₂O, and base, respectively. The negative ΔE_(ad) demonstrates the energetically favorable interaction between adsorbate and slab surface.

Real Microbial Electrolysis Cell (MEC) Construction, Inoculation, and Operation. Single chamber MECs were used to compare the performance of MoP700 with Pt/C. The MECs were made from narrow mouth media bottles sealed with butyl septum topped caps. The total reactor volumes were 320 mL with a liquid volume of 100 mL and a gas volume of 220 mL. The MECs cathode with loadings of 0.5 mg cm⁻² MoP700 (or Pt/C) were fabricated as follows: (1) desired loading of catalyst was mixed with Nafion (5%) for 10 hours in a ratio of 7 μL mg⁻¹ of catalyst to form a paste; 2) the paste was uniformly pipetted to both sides of the cathode material; 3) the painted cathode was left to dry out at 25° C. for 1 day. The cathode had a projected surface area of 1 cm². The anode was plain carbon cloth (CC, Fuel Cell Earth) with a projected surface area of 10 cm². MEC was inoculated by scraping mature biofilm from a previously enriched MEC anode and applying the biofilm on the plain CC anode, and operated sequentially with a medium solution (pH˜7.0) containing 200 mM phosphate buffer, 75 mM sodium acetate and necessary nutrients as reported previously (Liu et al., Environ Sci Technol 2004, 38(14):4040-6). The applied voltage across the electrodes was fixed at 1.0 V. Temperature was controlled at 32° C. Current was measured by recording the voltage across a serially connected 1Ω resistor using a multimeter with a data acquisition system (Type 2700, Keithley). Calculation of current density was performed as described previously (Cheng et al., PNAS USA 2007, 104(47):18871-3).

Example 1 Synthesis and Characterization of MoP/MoP₂ Catalyst

Synthesis of the MoP/MoP₂ catalyst involves two steps as discussed in detail below. In the first step, pristine POM was used to synthesize nanostructured rPOM through a reductive route. POMs are metal oxo clusters of group 5/6 elements that can accept or release electrons without destructing their nanostructures. In the second step, uniformly mixed rPOM and NaH₂PO₂ precursors (mass ratio of rPOM/NaH₂PO₂ is 1/5.8) are reacted to form a mixture of MoP/MoP₂ crystalline phases through a phosphidation process by PH₃/P which is produced by in situ thermal decomposition of NaH₂PO₂.

Synthesis of (NH₄)₃PMo₁₂O₄₀ (pristine POM). 0.01 mol (NH₄)₆Mo₇O₂₄.4H₂O (≥99%) and 0.006 mol H₃PO₄ (85%) were dissolved in 200 mL DI water (18.2 MΩ cm) under stirring. Then 8 mL of HNO₃ (70%) was dropwise added into the above mixture and kept at 80° C. for 2 hours. The resulting yellow-colored colloidal product was centrifuged and washed with 1.0% HNO₃ solution and dried at 80° C. for 24 hours.

Synthesis of rPOM (reduced POM). 5.0 g of POM was dispersed in 50 mL of DI water. Then 0.15 g of NaBH₄ (Sigma-Aldrich) was added to the above dispersion under stirring: as soon as the reduction of the POM occurred, gas evolution (NH₄ ⁺+H⁻→NH₃+H₂) took place and the solution color changed to dark-blue. After stirred for 2 hours to allow the complete reaction of the POM, rPOM nanoclusters-containing solution was centrifuged at a speed of 10,000 rpm for 2 hours to precipitate the impurities, and then, the resulting solution was separated and dried in a freezer-dryer to obtain the rPOM-Na⁺ _(n)[PMo₁₂O₄₀]^(n-) where the valence state on Mo is reduced from +6 to a value within a range of +4 to +6, and 3≤n≤27.

The reduction method transformed bulky POM into discrete rPOM clusters of ˜3-5 nm. FIG. 4A is a TEM image of rPOM; inset is a TEM image of (NH₄)₃PMo₁₂O₄₀. FIG. 4B is an HRTEM image of rPOM.

Synthesis of MoP700 Catalyst. 1.0 g of rPOM powder was mixed with 5.8 g of NaH₂PO₂.H₂O. The mixture was preheated at 240-300° C. for 2 hours (0.5° C. min⁻¹) in a tube furnace under Ar flow, and then calcined at 700° C. for 5 hours with Ar flowing, which transformed rPOM to a mixture of MoP/MoP₂ crystalline phases. The final product was ground and dispersed in 0.5 M HCl solution and kept at 80° C. for 1 hour, then centrifuged, washed with DI water and vacuum dried at 80° C. Advantages of this methodology include high reproducibility, avoidance of tedious purification procedures, and easy scale-up of up to gram quantities.

The formation of MoP is strongly associated with the high thermal stability of the rPOM nanocluster, in which the steric structure can only be decomposed into atomic Mo reactants at temperatures near 700° C. At lower temperatures, the nanocluster structure of rPOM can be maintained and the P or PH₃ species from the decomposition of NaH₂PO₂ (240-300° C.) could diffuse and then adsorb on the rPOM nanoclusters to form a solid composite consisting of rPOM encapsulated by P (rPOM@P). When the temperature is further increased to 700° C., the rPOM is decomposed and Mo and P atoms immediately combine to form MoP_(x) (“MoP700”), a nanocomposite of MoP and Mo P₂.

FIG. 5 shows thermogravimetric (TGA) curves of rPOM. The sample had a 10.71% mass loss by ˜480° C. due to the loss of crystal H₂O. There was very little mass loss from 400-700° C., confirming the rPOM precursor structure was stable. FIG. 6 shows XRD patterns for rPOM treated at different temperatures. FIG. 7 shows XRD patterns for a mixture of rPOM and NaH₂PO₂ treated at temperatures from 400 to 700° C. No MoP_(x) phases were observed in products heated at temperatures below 700° C. When the reaction was heated at 700° C., enough energy was supplied to decompose the rPOM cluster, thereby promoting combination of Mo and P to form MoP_(x). FIG. 8 shows TGA curves of MoP700.

For comparison, MoP₂, Mo₃P catalysts were also prepared by varying the mass ratio of Mo and P precursors, while MoP was obtained by heating the MoP700 catalyst in an Ar environment at 750° C. MoP₂ was prepared by combining 1.0 g rPOM powder with 8.69 g NaH₂PO₂.H₂O. Mo₃P was prepared by combining 1.0 g rPOM powder with just 1.50 g NaH₂PO₂.H₂O.

FIG. 9A is a TEM image of the as-synthesized MoP700 with nanoparticle size in the range of 8-30 nm. High-resolution TEM (HRTEM) imaging further reveals a crystalline nature and a MoP₂/MoP heterostructure of MoP700 (FIGS. 9B, 10A-10D). The coexistence of MoP and MoP₂ domains are clearly seen in the as-synthesized catalyst. Imaged lattice fringes with interplane spacings of 0.21 nm correspond to MoP (101) planes (FIG. 11 ), and d-spacings of 0.56 nm correspond to MoP₂ (020) planes (FIG. 12 ). The crystal structure difference of MoP and MoP₂ is also clearly visible form their Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT) in FIGS. 11 and 12 , respectively. Qualitative energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis confirmed the elemental compositions of selected area of MoP and MoP₂, which are consistent with their chemical formulas, 47.5:52.5 (˜1:1) and 36.8:63.2 (˜1:2) for MoP and MoP₂, respectively (FIG. 13 ). XRD patterns of MoP, MoP₂ and MoP700 further confirms the co-existence of MoP and MoP₂ phases in MoP700 (FIG. 14 ).

FIG. 15A is an HRTEM image of a MoP₂ nanoparticle; the enlarged boxed area shows the detailed structure of the (1-10). Different surface facets were identified by solid-colored lines. FIG. 15B is a FFT image of the MoP₂ nanoparticle. FIG. 15C shows the simulated crystal structure along the [110] zone axis. FIGS. 15D and 15E, respectively show P atom distribution and Mo atom distribution along the [110] zone axis. FIG. 16 is an HRTEM image of a MoP nanoparticle along the [010] zone axis; various surface facets were identified by white lines.

High-angle annular dark-field scanning TEM (HAADF-STEM) images of MoP700 showed the distribution of Mo and P in selected area of MoP (FIG. 17A) and MoP₂ (FIG. 17B) areas with both exhibiting Mo-terminated surfaces. FIG. 17A presents the HAADF-STEM image of selected area of MoP oriented along the [001] direction in which the Mo and P atoms are separated in two different columns. Because the contrast approximately scales with Z^(1.7), the brighter columns correspond to Mo atoms and the lighter ones correspond to P atoms. The bright edges of MoP phase indicate that the surface atoms can be identified as Mo; that is, MoP possesses Mo-terminated surfaces. The HAADF-STEM image (FIG. 17B) of selected areas of MoP₂ phase exhibited a zigzagging layered structure and the Mo and P atoms are separated in three different columns. The brighter columns correspond to Mo atoms and the interbedded lighter column is P atoms. The results suggest that the outermost atomic layers of MoP and MoP₂ are Mo-terminated, as depicted in the insets of FIGS. 17A and 17B, respectively.

The surface chemistry of MoP700 was investigated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The Mo 3d region of MoP700 shows binding energies of 232.63 and 228.81 eV indicative of Mo^(δ+) (0<δ≤4) species generally assigned to Mo in MoP_(x), and the rest of the Mo doublets at 236.35 eV and 233.39 eV can be attributed to high oxidation state of Mo (e.g., MoO₃, MoO₂) (FIG. 18A). The P 2p spectrum of MoP700 exhibits two main peak regions (FIG. 18B), with one centered at binding energy of 130.45 eV and 129.65 eV, which can be assigned to P bonded to Mo in the form of a phosphide, and the other peaks at 134.87 and 133.5 eV characteristic of metaphosphate. The existence of high valence Mo and P can be attributed to catalyst surface oxidation under ambient conditions as often observed for metal phosphides. Moreover, the charge values (δ) for Mo and P of catalysts are in the orders δ(Mo⁰)<δ(MoP)<δ(MoP700)<δ(MoP₂) and δ(P⁰)>δ(MoP)>δ(MoP700)>δ(MoP₂), respectively, revealing that Mo and P in MoP700 bear enhanced positive (δ⁻) and negative (δ⁻) charge, respectively. Those results point to the formation of strong “Mo^(δ+)—P^(δ−)” networks in MoP700, which could potentially mimics the catalytic behavior of “M^(2+δ)O^(δ)(OH)_(2-δ)/Pt” or “Au—/Pt—S_(ad) ^(δ−)” systems for H₂O dissociation (Subbaraman et al., Nat Mater 2012, 11(6):550-7; Subbaraman et al., Science 2011, 334(6060):1256-60; Danilovic et al. Angew Chem Int Edit 2012, 51(50):12495-8), and then promotes the overall HER on the MoP₂/MoP heterostructured catalyst.

Example 2 Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER) Catalyzed by MoP700

HER electrocatalytic activity of catalysts was first assessed in 1.0 M H₂-purged phosphate buffer solution (PBS, pH=7.4, ˜25° C.) using a typical three-electrode cell. FIGS. 19 and 20 , respectively, show the HER polarization curves and corresponding Tafel plots of MoP700 compared with those of MoP₂, MoP, Mo₃P and Pt/C (20 wt % Pt/C, ETE-K). MoP700 exhibited a low onset overpotential (η) of 75 mV, slightly higher than Pt/C (45 mV) catalyst. The η at current density (j) of 10 mA cm⁻² _(geometric) was 196 mV for MoP700, very close to 181 mV for Pt/C and significantly lower than 276, 327 and 490 mV for MoP₂, MoP and Mo₃P, respectively. As shown in Table 1, those η values on MoP700 are smaller than most PGM-free HER catalysts reported to date, placing its performance among the best in neutral pH solutions. From the extrapolation of the liner region of a plot of η versus log (j), Tafel slope values of 79, 97, 87, 153 and 108 mV dec⁻¹ were obtained for MoP700, MoP₂, MoP, Mo₃P and Pt/C, respectively. The smallest Tafel slope of MoP700 indicates a two-electron transfer process following a Volmer-Tafel mechanism of 2H_(ads) adsorption and H₂ evolution occurring on the surface of MoP700, which also demonstrates favorable H₂O dissociation and H_(ads) recombination kinetics on MoP700.

TABLE 1 Current η at the Loading density (j) corresponding Catalyst (mg · cm⁻²) (mA · cm⁻²) j (mV) Reference MoP700 0.25 10 196 N/A 25 245 MoP•Na/CC^(a) — 10 187 1 MoS₂/Mo^(a) — 10 244 2 MoP/CF^(a) — 1 300 3 MoB — 1.5 315 4 Mo₂C 241 Ni—S/FTO^(a) — 10 330 5 NiS₂•NA/CC 4.1 (NiS₂) 10 243 6 MW—CoS 0.283 10 275 7 ^(a)Catalytic materials directly grown or attached on current collectors 1. Pu et al., Appl Catal B Environ 2016, 196:193-8. 2. Pu et al., Electrochim Acta 2015, 168:133-8. 3. Cui et al., Appl Catal B Environ 2015, 164:144-50. 4. Vrubel et al., Angew Chem Int Edit. 2012, 51 (51):12703-6. 5. Jiang et al., J Mater Chem A 2014, 2(45):19407-14. 6. Tang et al., Electrochim Acta 2015, 153:508-14. 7. You et al., Chem Commun 2015, 51 (20:4252-5.

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurement was used to study the charge transfer on the catalysts under the HER conditions. The charge transfer resistance (R_(ct)) tells the kinetics of electrocatalysis on different electrodes, and a lower R_(ct) value corresponds to a faster reaction rate. It was found that the R_(ct) values of the electrodes show similar tendency to that previously observed in HER tests, with MoP700 exhibiting the smallest R_(ct (η=150 mV)) of 93 ohm (FIGS. 21, 22A-22D). This result indicates that the fast charge transfer is one of the key factors contributing to the superior neutral pH HER kinetics of the MoP700 electrode. All electrodes showed small and similar series resistance (R_(s)), suggesting that the experimental setup was consistent. The slight variation of R_(s) in different electrodes can be attributed to the differences in electrode resistance. Basically, transition metal phosphides (e.g., MoP, Ni₂P, and Co₂P) have physical properties similar to those of ordinary metallic compounds like the carbides, nitrides, and borides. They combine the properties of metals and ceramics, and therefore exhibit metal-like properties and high electrical conductivity.

The stability is also important for electrocatalysts in an energy conversion system. The HER stability of MoP700 was investigated using a dynamic potential protocol by scanning electrode potential between −0.4 and 0.2 V (versus RHE) for 4,000 cycles at scan rate of 50 mV·s⁻¹. This type of accelerated stability test (AST) is developed to represents the cycling expected for real electrolysis devices. Continuous gas bubbling was observed on MoP700 electrode throughout the test. As shown in FIG. 23 , the n of MoP700 electrode at 10 mA·cm⁻² _(geometric) increased only by ˜10 mV after the stability cycling, demonstrating a high stability of MoP700.

MoP700 also showed high and stable catalytic HER activity in in a three-electrode setup as described above using natural seawater (pH 7.8, salinity 33.8 psu) (FIG. 24 ). The outstanding HER performance of MoP700 shows a great potential for real application in H₂ production in neutral pH solution systems.

Example 3 Microbial Electrolysis Cell with MoP700 Catalyst

A microbial electrolysis cell (MEC) was constructed and inoculated as described in General Methods above. The MEC was operated at a pressure of 2 atm (2×10⁵ Pa). An initial evaluation in 200 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) with 75 mM sodium acetate was performed. The cathode was 1.0 cm² catalyst-loaded carbon cloth with 0.5 mg·cm⁻² catalyst-MoP700 or Pt/C (145 A·cm²). The anode was 10 cm² carbon cloth with enriched electrochemically active bacteria. Voltage was 1.0 V.

As shown in FIG. 25 , at the same catalyst loading, the MEC with MoP700 generated an average current density of 157 A M⁻² _(Cathode-Surface-Area), which was higher than that with Pt/C catalyst (145 A m⁻² _(Cathode-Surface-Area)). The high current density achieved demonstrated that the cathode with MoP700 is capable of generating H₂ ˜5 times faster than previously reported MECs (Table 2). The MEC with MoP700 also showed high catalytic stability during the MEC operation.

TABLE 2 Optimal current density in MEC based on projected cathode surface Loading (A · m⁻²) Catalyst type (mg · cm⁻²) Reference 157 MoP700 0.5 N/A 145 Pt 0.5 N/A 30 electroformed Ni mesh N/A 1 14 MoS₂ 2.5 2 19 stainless steel fiber felt N/A 3 18 Mg(OH)₂/graphene 1.5 4 1. Kadier et al., Chem Commun 2015, 51 (20 4252-5. 2. Tokash et al., Int J Hydrogen Energ 2011, 36(16):9439-45. 3. Su et al., J Power Sources 2016, 301:29-34. 4. Dai et al., Fuel 2016, 174:251-6.

Example 4 Catalytic Activity of MoP700

It was hypothesized that the excellent HER catalytic performance of the MoP700 catalyst is the direct outcome of its heterojunction-like MoP₂/MoP structure imparted by the unique chemical synthesis method. To prove this hypothesis, the intrinsic activity of catalysts was specifically compared by normalizing the measured current densities to their electrochemical active surface area (ECSA). FIGS. 26A-26D show cyclic voltammograms (CV) curves of MoP700 (26A), MoP₂ (26B), MoP (26C) and Mo₃P (26D) in the potential region of 0.10-0.30 V (versus RHE) at various scan rates (20-100 mV s⁻¹).

The measured capacitive currents were used to determine the specific capacitance (C_(dl)) of electrodes (ΔJ=½(J_(a)−J_(c)) at 0.20 V against the scan rate). The C_(dl) was converted into an electrochemical surface area (Δ_(ECSA)) using the C_(dl) value for a flat standard with 1 cm² of real surface area. The C_(dl) for a flat surface is generally found to be in the range of 20-60 μF cm⁻². In this work, 40 μF cm⁻² was assumed, which is a general practice in literature (Kibsgaard et al., Energ Environ Sci 2015, 8(10):3022-9; Kibsgaard et al., Angew Chem Int Edit 2014, 53(52):14433-7). FIG. 27 shows the calibration of Ag/AgCl (3.0M KCl) reference electrode with respect to reversible hydrogen potential using reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE) in H₂-saturated 0.5 M H₂SO₄. The calibration resulted in a shift of −0.255 V vs the RHE; thus, E_((RHE))=0.059 pH+0.255V. FIG. 28 shows the measured C_(dl) (FIGS. 26A-26D) plotted as a function of scan rate. The A_(ECSA) of MoP_(x) and Pt catalysts (0.25 mg cm⁻²) on electrodes was calculated using the following formula (Kibsgaard et al., Energ Environ Sci 2015, 8(10):3022-9; Kibsgaard et al., Angew Chem Int Edit 2014, 53(52):14433-7):

${A_{ECSA}^{Catalyst} = \frac{C_{dl}}{40{uF}{cm}^{- 2}{per}{}{cm}_{ECSA}^{2}}}{A_{ECSA}^{Pt} = \frac{79m^{2}g^{- 1}}{0.2*0.25{mg}{cm}^{- 2}*0.19625{cm}_{Electrode}^{2}}}$

The calculated A_(ECSA) for the catalysts is shown in FIG. 29 . FIG. 30 shows the measured HER polarization curves normalized to A_(ECSA).

MoP700 exhibited a η of 201 mV at j of 0.3 mA cm⁻² _(ESCA), which outperformed MoP₂, MoP and Mo₃P by 115, 89 and 261 mV. These results show that MoP700 is a highly active neutral pH HER catalyst. Comparing the HER activity of MoP700 and physical mixed MoP₂/MoP demonstrated that MoP700 is far better than the mixture (FIG. 19 ). Those results suggested that the HER catalytic reactivity is facilitated by a synergistic effect between Mo P₂ and MoP.

To understand the origin of the high activity of MoP700, density functional theory (DFT) calculations were performed. The binding strength (ΔE_(b)) of H₂O and H to both Mo- and P-terminated MoP₂, MoP and Mo₃P surfaces was first calculated. Neutral pH HER involves H₂O chemisorption/activation and H recombination on the surface of catalyst; so, a strong bonding of H₂O and weak bonding of H to surface is desired. The calculations showed that only Mo—MoP₂ surface has superior H₂O chemisorption property and only Mo—MoP₂ and Mo—MoP surfaces show preferential binding for H (FIG. 31 ), similar to the reported trend for Pt catalysts (Fajin et al., J Phys Chem A 2014, 118(31):5832-40; Bazhenov et al., J Phys Chem C 2017 (121(8):5832-40; Kolb et al., J Chem Phys 2014, 140(13); Tan et al., ACS Catal 2015, 5(4):2376-83), indicating those two surfaces are the active surfaces for the neutral pH HER, which agrees well with the observed structure of MoP700 with Mo-terminated surfaces. The kinetic reaction barrier (ΔE_(a)) for the dissociation of H₂O on Mo—MoP₂ and Mo—MoP surfaces was then calculated. The ΔE_(a) for the transition state and final state of H₂O decomposition on Mo—MoP₂ surface were determined to be lower than that on Mo—MoP surface (FIG. 32 ), suggesting a superior H₂O dissociation capability of Mo—MoP₂ surface. Meanwhile, on Mo—MoP surface, the ΔE_(b) for H was calculated to be lower than on Mo—MoP₂ surface. This suggests that the H_(ad) produced on Mo—MoP₂ sites could be “delivered” to the nearby Mo—MoP sites to form H—H bond more effectively if both Mo—MoP₂ and Mo—MoP₂ are stay closely together in the catalyst. In MoP700, the MoP₂—MoP synergy not only facilitates the H₂O chemisorption/dissociation, but also promotes the H—H bond formation of two adjacent H_(ads) that, finally, recombine into molecular H₂. All of these synergistic effects contribute to the enhanced neutral pH HER catalytic activity of MoP700.

Additional catalytic studies were conducted to get further insights into the origin of the high HER activity of MoP700 in PBS. FIG. 33 compares the HER activities (expressed as η values at j of 10 mA cm⁻² _(Geometric)) of MoP700, MoP₂, MoP, Mo₃P and Pt/C catalysts in acidic, neutral and basic solutions. For the MoP₂, MoP and Mo₃P catalysts, the HER catalytic activity increased in the order acidic>basic>neutral, consistent with the observed trend for Pt/C. However, the HER activity trend for MoP700, neutral>acidic>basic, was inverse to that observed on the other electrodes, indicating that the HER on MoP700 is controlled by the reactivity of the MoP₂/MoP composite surface.

Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is hypothesized that the neutral pH HER mechanism on MoP700 surface is as shown in FIG. 3 . Previous calculation of the P terminated surface on MoP implies that the binding of H⁺ on P is unfavorable when the H⁺ concentration is high (Xiao et al., J of Catalysis 2012, 287:161-9. The result is that P could ‘poison’ the active sites for H_(ad) formation/recombination. In basic solution, because H₂O dissociation is kinetically facile on MoP700 while the HER activity is neutral<basic, desorption of OH_(ad) species to refresh the catalysts' surface might be the key step for HER. That is, the OH⁻ species from the electrolyte could either occupy or prevent the desorption of OH_(ad) from the active sites for further H₂O adsorption/dissociation on MoP700 surface, causing inefficient release of OH_(ad) and then deactivating the catalyst. The roughly equivalent HER activity on MoP700 in acidic and basic electrolytes might be related to the similar blocking effect of excess H⁺ or OH⁻ on the performance of MoP700 in HER. At this point, keeping in mind that HER of MoP700 in neutral solution is almost independent of H⁺ and OH⁻ and the HER activity is MoP700>MoP>MoP₂, it is believed that the surface MoP₂/MoP enabled fast H₂O dissociation step is the key for the high catalytic activity.

In view of the many possible embodiments to which the principles of the disclosed invention may be applied, it should be recognized that the illustrated embodiments are only preferred examples of the invention and should not be taken as limiting the scope of the invention. Rather, the scope of the invention is defined by the following claims. We therefore claim as our invention all that comes within the scope and spirit of these claims. 

We claim:
 1. A catalyst, comprising: regions of crystalline MoP; and regions of crystalline MoP₂, the catalyst having a molar ratio of MoP:MoP₂ within a range of 5:95 to 95:5, wherein the catalyst is a composite of MoP and MoP₂, and the regions of crystalline MoP and regions of crystalline MoP₂ have Mo-terminated surfaces.
 2. The catalyst of claim 1, wherein the composite is a nanocomposite comprising nanoparticles having an average largest dimension within a range of 5-50 nm.
 3. The catalyst of claim 1, wherein: the MoP regions comprise (101) planes and the MoP₂ regions comprise (020) planes.
 4. A method of making a catalyst, comprising: combining (i) M⁺ _(n)[PMo₁₂O₄₀]^(n-) where 3≤n≤27 and M is a +1 cation and (ii) MH₂PO₂ in a M⁺ _(n)[PMo₁₂O₄₀]^(n-)/MH₂PO₂ mass ratio within a range of 1:4 to 1:7 to provide a mixture; heating the mixture in an inert atmosphere at a first temperature T₁ within a range of 240° C. to 300° C. for a first period of time to form MoP_(x) where 1<x<2; and subsequently heating the MoP_(x) in the inert atmosphere at a second temperature T₂ within a range of 675° C. to 725° C. for a second period of time to form a catalyst comprising MoP and MoP₂, the catalyst having a molar ratio of MoP:MoP₂ within a range of 5:95 to 95:5, wherein the catalyst is a composite of MoP and MoP₂.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the first period of time is at least one hour.
 6. The method of claim 4, wherein the second period of time is at least four hours.
 7. The method of claim 4, wherein the inert atmosphere comprises argon, nitrogen, helium, or any combination thereof.
 8. The method of claim 4, further comprising preparing the M⁺ _(n)[PMo₁₂O₄₀]^(n-) by: preparing an aqueous solution comprising a phosphomolybdate (POM); adding a reducing agent to the aqueous solution with stirring; continuing to stir for an effective period of time to reduce POM and form a solution comprising nanoclusters of M⁺ _(n)[PMo₁₂O₄₀]^(n-); and drying the solution comprising the nanoclusters to obtain M⁺ _(n)[PMo₁₂O₄₀]^(n-).
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the reducing agent is NaBH₄ and M⁺ _(n)[PMo₁₂O₄₀]^(n−) is Na⁺ _(n)[PMo₁₂O₄₀]^(n-).
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the effective period of time is at least one hour.
 11. The method of claim 8, further comprising preparing the POM by: preparing an aqueous solution comprising a molybdate and H₃PO₄ in a molar ratio≤1:0.58 with stirring; adding 10-15 mol HNO₃ per mol of the molybdate dropwise to the aqueous solution with stirring; incubating the aqueous solution at a temperature within a range of from 60° C. to 100° C. for at least two hours, thereby producing a solution comprising POM; and recovering POM from the solution comprising POM.
 12. A product made by the method of claim
 4. 13. The method of claim 4, wherein M is Na, K, or NH₄. 